Mass shootings claim a disproportionate number of Black victims and happen more often in US cities with higher Black populations, suggesting that structural racism may play a role, according to a new study by Tulane University researchers.

Mass shootings, defined by the Gun Violence Archive as incidents where at least four victims are shot, have more than doubled in the US since 2014, to 649 in 2022. The higher a city’s Black population, the more likely it is to experience a mass shooting, according to the research published Wednesday in JAMA Surgery, a medical journal. The study is one of the first to look into the demographics of these events and link them to housing segregation, redlining and other discriminatory housing practices.